Green Engineering Environmentally Conscious Design of Chemical Processes

by ;
Edition: 1st
Format: Paperback
Pub. Date: 2020-01-24
Publisher(s): Prentice Hall
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Summary

A chemical engineer's guide to managing and minimizing environmental impact. Chemical processes are invaluable to modern society, yet they generate substantial quantities of wastes and emissions, and safely managing these wastes costs tens of millions of dollars annually. Green Engineeringis a complete professional's guide to the cost-effective design, commercialization, and use of chemical processes in ways that minimize pollution at the source, and reduce impact on health and the environment. This book also offers powerful new insights into environmental risk-based considerations in design of processes and products. First conceived by the staff of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Green Engineeringdraws on contributions from many leaders in the field and introduces advanced risk-based techniques including some currently in use at the EPA. Coverage includes: Engineering chemical processes, products, and systems to reduce environmental impacts Approaches for evaluating emissions and hazards of chemicals and processes Defining effective environmental performance targets Advanced approaches and tools for evaluating environmental fate Early-stage design and development techniques that minimize costs and environmental impacts In-depth coverage of unit operation and flowsheet analysis The economics of environmental improvement projects Integration of chemical processes with other material processing operations Lifecycle assessments: beyond the boundaries of the plant Increasingly, chemical engineers are faced with the challenge of integrating environmental objectives into design decisions. Green Engineeringgives them the technical tools they need to do so.

Author Biography

DAVID T. ALLEN, Reese Professor of Chemical Engineering and the Director of the Center for Energy and Environmental Resources at the University of Texas at Austin, was the 2000 recipient of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers Lawrence K. Cecil Award in Environmental Chemical Engineering for his contributions to air quality and pollution prevention engineering and environmental engineering education.

DAVID R. SHONNARD, Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering at Michigan Technological University, is a 1998 recipient of the NSF/Lucent Technologies Foundation Industrial Ecology Research Fellowship for research that integrates environmental impact assessment with process design. Other related awards include an NSF-funded repository for pollution prevention curriculum development materials.

With contributions by authors from US EPA and Industry.

Table of Contents

Preface xiii
About The Authors xv
Acknowledgments xix
PART I A CHEMICAL ENGINEER'S GUIDE TO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND REGULATIONS 1(90)
An Introduction to Environmental Issues
3(32)
Introduction
3(1)
The Role of Chemical Processes and Chemical Products
4(2)
An Overview of Major Environmental Issues
6(1)
Global Environmental Issues
7(7)
Global Energy Issues
7(2)
Global Warming
9(1)
Ozone Depletion in the Stratosphere
10(4)
Air Quality Issues
14(8)
Criteria Air Pollutants
15(2)
NOx, Hydrocarbons, and VOC's---Ground-Level Ozone
17(1)
Carbon Monoxide
17(2)
Lead
19(1)
Particulate Matter
19(1)
SO2, NOx, and Acid Deposition
20(1)
Air Toxics
21(1)
Water Quality Issues
22(1)
Ecology
23(1)
Natural Resources
24(1)
Waste Flows in the United States
24(11)
Summary
28(1)
References
29(1)
Problems
30(5)
Risk Concepts
35(28)
Introduction
35(1)
Description of Risk
36(3)
Value of Risk Assessment in the Engineering Profession
39(2)
Risk-Based Environmental Law
41(1)
General Overview of Risk Assessment Concepts
42(2)
Hazard Assessment
44(8)
Cancer and Other Toxic Effects
45(1)
Hazard Assessment for Cancer
46(2)
Hazard Assessment for Non-Cancer Endpoints
48(2)
Structure Activity Relationships (SAR)
50(1)
Readily Available Hazard References
50(2)
Dose-Response
52(2)
Exposure Assessment
54(3)
Risk Characterization
57(6)
Risk Characterization of Cancer Endpoints
57(1)
Risk Characterization of Non-Cancer Endpoints
57(1)
Adding Risks
58(1)
Summary
58(1)
References
58(2)
Problems
60(3)
Environmental Law and Regulations: From End-Of-Pipe To Pollution Prevention
63(18)
Introduction
63(3)
Nine Prominent Federal Environmental Statues
66(1)
Evolution of Regulatory and Voluntary Programs: From End-of-Pipe to Pollution Prevention
67(3)
Pollution Prevention Concepts and Terminology
70(11)
References
76(1)
Problems
77(4)
The Roles and Responsibilities of Chemical Engineers
81(10)
Introduction
81(1)
Responsibilities for Chemical Process Safety
82(3)
Responsibilities for Environmental Protection
85(2)
Further Reading in Engineering Ethics
87(4)
References
87(1)
Problems
88(3)
PART II EVALUATING AND IMPROVING ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE OF CHEMICAL PROCESSES 91(326)
Evaluating Environmental Fate: Approaches Based on Chemical Structure
93(46)
Introduction
93(2)
Chemical and Physical Property Estimation
95(23)
Boiling Point and Melting Point
97(3)
Vapor Pressure
100(3)
Octanol-Water Partition Coefficient
103(5)
Bioconcentration Factor
108(2)
Water Solubility
110(2)
Henry's Law Constant
112(3)
Soil Sorption Coefficients
115(3)
Summary
118(1)
Questions for Discussion
118(1)
Estimating Environmental Persistence
118(8)
Estimating Atmospheric Lifetimes
118(4)
Estimating Lifetimes in Aqueous Environments
122(2)
Estimating Overall Biodegradability
124(2)
Summary
126(1)
Questions for Discussion
126(1)
Estimating Ecosystem Risks
126(1)
Questions for Discussion
127(1)
Using Property Estimates to Estimate Environmental Fate and Exposure
127(4)
Summary
131(1)
Questions for Discussion
131(1)
Classifying Environmental Risks Based on Chemical Structure
131(8)
References
133(2)
Problems
135(4)
Evaluating Exposures
139(38)
Introduction
139(1)
Occupational Exposures: Recognition, Evaluation, and Control
140(16)
Characterization of the Workplace
141(2)
Exposure Pathways
143(2)
Monitoring Worker Exposure
145(1)
Modeling Inhalation Exposures
146(1)
The Mass Balance Model
146(3)
Dispersion Models
149(2)
Assessing Dermal Exposures
151(5)
Questions for Discussion
156(1)
Exposure Assessment for Chemicals in the Ambient Environment
156(11)
Exposure to Toxic Air Pollutants
156(4)
Dermal Exposure to Chemicals in the Ambient Environment
160(1)
Effect of Chemical Releases to Surface Waters on Aquatic Biota
161(3)
Ground Water Contamination
164(3)
Questions for Discussion
167(1)
Designing Safer Chemicals
167(10)
Reducing Dose
168(1)
Reducing Toxicity
169(1)
References
170(2)
Problems
172(5)
Green Chemistry
177(22)
Green Chemistry
177(1)
Green Chemistry Methodologies
178(13)
Feedstocks
178(3)
Solvents
181(4)
Synthesis Pathways
185(5)
Functional Group Approaches to Green Chemistry
190(1)
Quantitative/Optimization-Based Frameworks for the Design of Green Chemical Synthesis Pathways
191(4)
Green Chemistry Expert System Case Studies
195(4)
Questions for Discussion
196(1)
References
196(2)
Problems
198(1)
Evaluating Environmental Performance During Process Synthesis
199(52)
Introduction
199(1)
Tier 1 Environmental Performance Tools
200(15)
Economic Criteria
201(1)
Environmental Criteria
202(2)
Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), Permissible Exposure Limits (PELs), and Recommended Exposure Limits (RELs)
204(3)
Toxicity Weighting
207(2)
Evaluating Alternative Synthetic Pathways
209(6)
Questions for Discussion
215(1)
Tier 2 Environmental Performance Tools
215(31)
Environmental Release Assessment
216(1)
Basics of Releases
216(1)
Release Assessment Components
216(1)
Process Analysis
217(3)
Release Quantification Methods
220(1)
Measured Release Data for the Chemical
220(1)
Release Data for a Surrogate Chemical
221(1)
Emissions Factors
221(1)
Emissions from Process Units and Fugitive Sources
222(3)
Losses of Residuals from Cleaning of Drums and Tanks
225(3)
Secondary Emissions from Utility Sources
228(3)
Modeled Release Estimates
231(1)
Loading Transport Containers
231(6)
Evaporative Losses from Static Liquid Pools
237(1)
Storage Tank Working and Breathing Losses
238(1)
Release Characterization and Documentation
239(5)
Assessing Environmental Performance
244(2)
Questions for Discussion
246(1)
Tier 3 Environmental Performance Tools
246(5)
References
246(2)
Problems
248(3)
Unit Operations and Pollution Prevention
251(58)
Introduction
251(2)
Pollution Prevention in Material Selection for Unit Operations
253(4)
Pollution Prevention for Chemical Reactors
257(17)
Material Use and Selection for Reactors
258(3)
Reaction Type and Reactor Choice
261(7)
Reactor Operation
268(6)
Pollution Prevention for Separation Devices
274(9)
Choice of Mass Separating Agent
274(2)
Process Design and Operation Heuristics for Separation Technologies
276(4)
Pollution Prevention Examples for Separations
280(1)
Separators with Reactors for Pollution Prevention
280(3)
Pollution Prevention Applications for Separative Reactors
283(3)
Pollution Prevention in Storage Tanks and Fugitive Sources
286(8)
Storage Tank Pollution Prevention
286(3)
Reducing Emissions from Fugitive Sources
289(5)
Pollution Prevention Assessment Integrated with HAZ-OP Analysis
294(2)
Integrating Risk Assessment with Process Design---A Case Study
296(13)
Questions for Discussion
301(1)
References
301(4)
Problems
305(4)
Flowsheet Analysis for Pollution Prevention
309(52)
Introduction
309(4)
Process Energy Integration
313(4)
Process Mass Integration
317(30)
Source-Sink Mapping
317(10)
Optimizing Strategies for Segregation, Mixing, and Recycle of Streams
327(6)
Mass Exchange Network Synthesis
333(14)
Case Study of a Process Flowsheet
347(14)
Summary
354(1)
References
354(1)
Problems
355(6)
Evaluating The Environmental Performance of A Flowsheet
361(36)
Introduction
361(1)
Estimation of Environmental Fates of Emissions and Wastes
362(13)
Fugacity and Fugacity Capacity
364(3)
Intermedia Transport
367(4)
Reaction Loss Processes
371(1)
Balance Equations
372(3)
Tier 3 Metrics for Environmental Risk Evaluation of Process Designs
375(22)
Global Warming
376(2)
Ozone Depletion
378(1)
Acid Rain
379(1)
Smog Formation
379(7)
Toxicity
386(4)
Summary
390(2)
References
392(2)
Problems
394(3)
Environmental Cost Accounting
397(20)
Introduction
397(1)
Definitions
398(2)
Magnitudes of Environmental Costs
400(2)
A Framework for Evaluating Environmental Costs
402(3)
Hidden Environmental Costs
405(2)
Liability Costs
407(5)
Internal Intangible Costs
412(1)
External Intangible Costs
413(4)
References
414(1)
Problems
415(2)
PART III MOVING BEYOND THE PLANT BOUNDARY 417(122)
Life-Cycle Concepts, Product Stewardship, and Green Engineering
419(42)
Introduction to Product Life Cycle Concepts
419(2)
Life-Cycle Assessment
421(11)
Definitions and Methodology
422(3)
Life-Cycle Inventories
425(7)
Life-Cycle Impact Assessments
432(9)
Classification
433(1)
Characterization
433(4)
Valuation
437(3)
Interpretation of Life-Cycle Data and Practical Limits to Life-Cycle Assessments
440(1)
Streamlined Life-Cycle Assessments
441(7)
Streamlined Data Gathering for Inventories and Characterization
441(1)
Qualitative Techniques for Inventories and Characterization
442(5)
Pitfalls, Advantages, and Guidance
447(1)
Uses of Life-Cycle Studies
448(13)
Product Comparison
448(1)
Strategic Planning
448(1)
Public Sector Uses
448(2)
Product Design and Improvement
450(3)
Process Design
453(1)
Summary
453(2)
Questions for Discussion
455(1)
References
455(2)
Problems
457(4)
Industrial Ecology
461(78)
Introduction
461(5)
Material Flows in Chemical Manufacturing
466(2)
Eco-Industrial Parks
468(3)
Assessing Opportunities for Waste Exchanges and Byproduct Synergies
471(1)
Summary
472(1)
References
472(1)
Problems
473
APPENDICES
A Details of The Nine Prominent Federal Environmental Statutes
472(19)
B Molecular Connectivity
491(2)
C Estimating Emissions from Storage Tanks
493(16)
D Tables of Environmental Impact Potentials---Tables D-1 to D-4
509(6)
E Procedures for Estimating Hidden (Tier II) Costs---Tables E-1 to E-5
515(8)
F Additional Resources---Web Resources/Online Databases/Software
523(16)
Index 539

Excerpts

Preface Chemical processes provide a diverse array of valuable products and materials used in applications ranging from health care to transportation and food processing. Yet these same chemical processes that provide products and materials essential to modern economies also generate substantial quantities of wastes and emissions. Managing these wastes costs tens of billions of dollars each year, and as emission and treatment standards continue to become more stringent, these costs will continue to escalate. In the face of rising costs and increasingly stringent performance standards, traditional end-of-pipe approaches to waste management have become less attractive and a strategy variously known as environmentally conscious manufacturing, eco-efficient production, or pollution prevention has been gaining prominence. The basic premise of this strategy is that avoiding the generation of wastes or pollutants can often be more cost effective and better for the environment than controlling or disposing of pollutants once they are formed. The intent of this textbook is to describe environmentally preferable or "green" approaches to the design and development of processes and products. The idea of writing this textbook was conceived in 1997 by the staff of the Chemical Engineering Branch (CEB), Economics, Exposure and Technology Division (EETD), Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics (OPPT) of the US EPA. In 1997, OPPT staff found that, although there was a growing technical literature describing "green" approaches to chemical product and process design, and a growing number of university courses on the subject, there was no standard textbook on the subject area of green engineering. So, in early 1998, OPPT initiated the Green Engineering Project with the initial goal of producing a text describing "green" design methods suitable for inclusion in the chemical engineering curriculum. Years of work, involving extensive interaction between chemical engineering educators and EPA staff, have resulted in this text. The text presents the "green" engineering tools that have been developed for chemical processes and is intended for senior-level chemical engineering students. The text begins (Chapters 1-4) with a basic introduction to environmental issues, risk concepts, and environmental regulations. This background material identifies the types of wastes, emissions, material use, and energy use to determine the environmental performance of chemical processes and products. Once the environmental performance targets have been defined, the design of processes with superior environmental performance can begin. Chapters 5-12 describe tools for assessing and improving the environmental performance of chemical processes. The structure of the chapters revolves around a hierarchy of design, beginning with tools for evaluating environmental hazards of chemicals, continuing through unit operation and flowsheet analysis, and concluding with the economics of environmental improvement projects. The final section of the text (Chapters 13 and 14) describes tools for improving product stewardship and improving the level of integration between chemical processes and other material processing operations. It is our hope that this text will contribute to the evolving process of environmentally conscious design. Draft manuscripts of this text have been used in senior-level engineering elective and required courses at the University of Texas at Austin, Michigan Technological University, the University of South Carolina, and West Virginia University. It is suggested, in a typical semester, all of the material in the text is presented. Portions of the textbook have been and can be used in a number of other chemical engineering courses as well as other engineering or environmental policy courses. Dr. David T. Allen, University of Texas, Austin Dr. David R. Shonnard, Michigan Technological Unive

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