Introduction 1
Public Communication Campaigns 1
Changes in the Media Landscape 2
What This Textbook Offers 2
A Comprehensive Focus 3
An Easy Focus 3
An International Focus 3
A Practical Focus 4
A Theoretical Focus 4
Summary of All Chapters 5
Notes 7
Part I Introducing Public Communication Campaigns 9
Chapter 1 Definitions, Strategies, and Background Information 11
What Are Public Communication Campaigns? 11
A Method of Reform and Governance 12
Public Communication Campaigns vs. Advertising 12
Two Main Types of Public Communication Campaigns 12
Communication 13
Definitions 13
Communication as a Mediator of Social Change 14
Community-Based and Interpersonal Communication 14
Messaging 15
The “Public” Aspect of Campaigns 15
Public Communication 16
Public Sphere 16
Segmented Communication 17
Personal Messaging 17
Focal Segments 18
Experiential Identity 19
Diffusion of Innovations (DoI): An Introduction 19
Five Steps of Diffusion 19
Four Elements of DoI 20
Diffusion of Innovations (DoI): Social Capital 21
Social Network Analysis 21
Centralized, Decentralized, and All-Channel Networks 21
Case Study: The Guy-to-Guy Project 22
Diffusion of Innovations (DoI): Opinion Leadership 23
Friends and Colleagues as Opinion Leaders 23
Social Influencers in the Internet Era 24
Public Communication Campaigns in History 24
Case Study 1: The United States 25
Case Study 2: The Temperance Movement 26
Case Study 3: Singapore 27
Current Strategies of Communication Campaigns 28
Social Marketing 28
Marketing Perspectives 29
Five Types of Social Marketing 29
Social Norms Marketing 30
Social Norms 31
Types of Social Norms 32
Peer Groups 33
Third-Person Effect 33
The Theory of Planned Behavior 34
Notes 35
Chapter 2 The 10 Steps of Public Communication Campaigns 47
Step 1: Define and Select Your Topic 48
Step 2: Set Goals and Objectives 49
Step 3: Analyze and Understand the Situation Beforehand 50
Planning 50
Formative Research 51
Communication Design 51
Step 4: Define Your Audience(s) 52
Audience Analysis 52
Audience Beliefs 53
Audience Values 54
Audience Needs 54
Audience Adaptation 55
Audience Perception 55
Step 5: Understand the Timeline and Budget 56
Allocating the Budget 57
Government Funding 57
Step 6: Choose Appropriate Media 58
What Medium to Use? 58
Media Advocacy 58
Audience Engagement on Social Networks 59
Building a Website for the Campaign? 60
Uses & Gratifications (U&G) Theory 61
Step 7: Develop Optimal Message Content 62
Keep the Message Simple 62
Emphasize Benefits over Risks 63
Avoid Confusion 63
Copyright and Intellectual Property Issues 63
Step 8: Avoid Monologic Communication and Interact with Your Audience(s) 64
Monologic Communication 64
Dialogic Communication 64
Communal Mindset 65
Step 9: Update the Campaign with Timely, Relevant, and Accurate Information 66
Boost the Confidence to Make Changes 66
Update Campaign Memes 67
Step 10: Evaluate the Overall Campaign 67
What Is Meant by “Evaluation”? 67
Beginning at the Outset of the Campaign 69
Different Platforms for Evaluation 69
Notes 70
Chapter 3 Persuasion in Public Communication Campaigns 80
Three Types of Messages 81
Three Paths of Persuasion 81
Logos, Pathos, and Ethos 82
Logos 82
Pathos 82
Ethos 83
Behavior Change Communication (BCC) 83
Behavioral Intention 84
Belief Change 84
Priming 85
Repeated Exposure 85
Self-Affirmation Theory 86
The Three Components 86
Self-Integrity 86
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) 87
Central Route 87
Peripheral Route 88
The Transtheoretical Model 88
The Five Stages 88
Application to the Struggles of Obesity 89
Understanding Attitude 89
Attitude Object 90
Attitude Change 90
Ego 91
Social Judgment Theory (SJT) 91
The Three-Part Latitude 92
Persuasion as a Two-Stage Process 92
Attitude Accessibility Theory 92
Examples 93
Biased Message Processing 93
Expectancy Theory 94
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 94
Three Components of Expectancy Theory 94
The 10 Ethical Principles of Public Communication Campaigns 95
1―Ethical Campaigners Are Factual 95
2―Ethical Campaigners Are Honest 96
3―Ethical Campaigners Act with Integrity 96
4―Ethical Campaigners Balance the Message 96
5―Ethical Campaigners Demonstrate Respect 97
6―Ethical Campaigners Give Informed Choices 97
7―Ethical Campaigners Do Not Violate Individuals’ Autonomy 98
8―Ethical Campaigners Avoid Conflicts of Interests 98
9― E thical Campaigners Avoid Unnecessarily Privileging One Group over Another 98
10―Ethical Campaigners Are Responsible 98
Persuasive Effects of Public Communication Campaigns 99
Five Positive Effects of Public Communication Campaigns 99
Unintended Effects 101
Indirect Routes 101
The 12 Negative Effects of Public Communication Campaigns 102
1―Low External Locus of Control 102
2―Messages that Produce the Opposite Behavior 103
3―Reactance 104
4―Widening Disparity 105
5―Opportunity Cost 105
6―Enabling 105
7―Loss of Self-Esteem 106
8―Less Enjoyment 106
9―Culpability 107
10―Increased Danger to One’s Health 107
11―Misunderstanding 108
12―Desensitization 108
Notes 109
Chapter 4 Thought-Provoking Public Communication Campaigns 121
The Extended Parallel Process Model (EPPM) 122
Past Research 122
The EPPM as a Process Model 123
Sensation Seeking 123
High-Sensation Seekers 124
Sensation Seeking Targeting (SENTAR) 124
Case Study 125
Sensation Value 125
Effects of Alarmist Language 126
Negative Effects: Case Studies 126
Nonconsequentialism: An Argument against Alarmist Language 127
Visual Materials 128
Responsive Chord 128
Vivid Information 129
Case Study: Climate Communication Campaigns 129
Provocation: Definitions 129
Case Study: Antismoking Campaigns in England 131
Shockvertising 131
Controversial, Troubling, Explicit, and Crass 131
Selective Perception Theory 132
Perceptual Defense and the Salience Effect 132
Framing Theory 133
Framing a Campaign 133
Gain-Framed vs. Loss-Framed Messages 134
Case Study: People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) 135
PETA as an Organization 135
Techniques and Communications 136
PETA’s Campaigns 136
Campaign #1: “I’d Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur” 137
Women as Headline-Grabbers 137
Female Sexuality and Female Bodies 137
Campaign #2: “Holocaust on Your Plate” 138
Holocaust, Animals, and Himmler 139
Personhood 140
Criticism 140
Describing PETA’s Campaigns through Self-Efficacy Theory and Inoculation Theory 141
Notes 142
Part II Health Communication Campaigns 153
Chapter 5 Health Communication Campaigns: General Perspectives 155
Perceptions of Health over Time 156
Public Health 156
Communication Tools 157
Goals and Strategies 157
Noncommercial Aims 158
How Effective Are Health Communication Campaigns? 158
Perceptions of Mass Media Messages about Health 159
Five-Step Strategy for Better Health Communication Campaigns 160
Antismoking Campaigns 162
The Health Belief Model (HBM) 162
The Negative Effects of Stigmatizing Smokers in Campaigns 163
Case Study: The truth Campaign 164
“Finish It” 164
Methods 165
truth’s Most Recognized Media 166
Effects of the truth Campaign 167
Costs of the Campaign 167
Bar-Based Interventions 167
Harm Reduction Campaigns 168
Campaigns to Legalize Prostitution 168
Case Study: DanceSafe 169
Criticism of Harm Reduction Campaigns 169
Case Study: HIV Campaigns in South Africa 170
HIV Campaigns 171
World AIDS Day 171
Case Study: Examining Social Determinants of Health (SDH) and ABC Behaviors in Uganda 172
Risky Sexual Behaviors 173
ABC Behaviors 173
ABC Behaviors Campaign in Uganda 174
Tackling Gender Inequities 175
Situation Today 175
Fisheries 176
Case Study: The “Clean India Mission” Campaign 176
Notes 177
Chapter 6 Differences in Literacy and Culture in Health Campaigns 189
Health Literacy 190
Four Message Characteristics 190
eHealth and the Digital Divide 191
Bridging the Digital Divide 192
E-Inclusion 192
Case Study: UNICEF’s Reimagine Education Campaign 193
Bridging the Digital Divide 193
Examples across the World 194
Facing Cultural Barriers 194
Antismoking Campaigns 195
Understanding Culture-Specific Interpretations 195
Case Study: Jamaica 196
Patois or Creole 197
The Health Literacy Problem 197
Targeted Community Intervention (TCI) for HIV/AIDS 197
Interventions through Oral Culture 198
The Five Attributes of Culture 199
Habitus 200
Structure 200
Socially Constructed and Historically Transmitted 200
Software of the Mind 201
Learned 202
Case Study: Gerber in Africa 202
Differences within Africa 203
Considering the Broader Picture and Formative Research 203
Case Study: A Case for Cultural Competency 204
Cultural Awareness, Knowledge, and Skill 204
Reducing Cross-Cultural Misunderstandings 205
Ethnographic Considerations for Health Campaigns 205
Participant Observation 206
Discovering Symbolic Cultures 207
Implications for Health Communication Campaigns 207
Notes 208
Chapter 7 Public Communication Campaigns during the COVID-19 Pandemic 217
COVID-19: Definitions and Facts 218
The Great Lockdown 219
Suicides, Mental Health Disorders, and Alcoholism 219
Risk Communication 220
Risk Communication vs. Crisis Communication 221
Strategic Communication 221
Infodemic Management 222
Strategies for COVID-19 Communication Campaigns 222
Early Campaigns as Infodemic Management 223
The 12 Principles of Social Distancing Campaigns 223
Case Study: Vietnam 226
Quick and Appropriate Response 227
“Jealous Coronavirus” Video 227
Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) 228
Consistent, Truthful Messages 229
Messages of Unity and Community Responsibility 230
COVID-19 Vaccination Campaigns 230
Vaccination-Driven Campaigns 231
Avoiding Manufacturing Consent 232
The Threat of Vaccine Hesitancy 232
Case Study: Israel 233
Public Communication Campaigns 234
Ultra-Orthodox Jews as Change Agents 235
Arab Communities in Israel 235
Countercampaign: Anti-Vaxxers 236
Anti-Vaxxers 236
The Role of Social Media 237
Notes 238
Chapter 8 Entertainment–Education, Digital Games, and Celebrity Campaigns 249
Behavioral and Social Change 250
Social Impact Entertainment (SIE) 251
Case Studies 251
EE in the United States 252
EE in the Latino World 252
EE in Africa 253
EE in Asia 254
Narrative Involvement 254
The Sabido Methodology 255
Identification and Wishful Identification 255
Perceived Similarity 256
Parasocial Interaction 256
Liking 257
Markers 258
Digital Games as Health Communication Campaigns 258
Gamification 259
Games for Health Promotion Programs 259
Game Features 259
Games for Change (GfC), Serious Games, and Persuasive Games 260
Serious Games 260
Persuasive Games 261
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) 262
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation 262
Autonomy 263
Competence 263
Relatedness 264
Dasein 264
Celebrity Health Campaigns 265
Celebrities’ Participation 266
Public Service Announcement (PSAs) 266
Case Study: Prince William’s Mental Health Campaign 267
The Heads Up Campaign 267
The Heads Together Campaign 268
Impact of Celebrity Health Disclosure 268
The Kylie Effect 269
The Selena Effect 270
Notes 270
Part III Communication Campaigns For Social Justice and Social Change 285
Chapter 9 Social Justice and Social Change 287
What Is Social Justice? 287
Social Movements 288
Social Justice Warriors (SJWs)? 289
The Ultimate Objective of Social Justice Campaigns: Social Change 289
What Is Social Change? 290
Manifestations of Social Change 290
Case Study 1: Campaign against Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) in Africa 291
Statistics 292
The End FGM/C Social Change Campaign 292
Communicating Facts to the Public 293
Advocating for Human Rights 293
Absolute Rights and Natural Rights 294
Conscientization 294
Critical Questioning 295
Citizen Participation 295
Case Study 2: Campaign against Honor Killing in Pakistan 296
Beyond Individual Family Matters and across Cultures 296
Humanity Healing International’s Campaign 296
Citizen Participation 297
Campaigning for Environmental Policies 297
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) 298
Ecological Responsibility 299
Green Campaigns for Young Green Audiences 299
Nongovernmental Organizations 300
The Types of Nongovernmental Organizations 300
The Four Orientations 301
Notes 302
Chapter 10 The #MeToo Campaign 310
Sexual Misconduct: Key Terms and Definitions 310
Sexual Harassment and Rape Culture 311
Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) 311
Sexual Misconduct: Statistics and Facts 312
Situation in the United States 312
Situation on US College Campuses 313
Situation in the US Workplace 313
The #MeToo Campaign: General Perspectives 314
The #MeToo Movement 314
Hashtag Activism and User Generated Content 315
The #MeToo Campaign: Positive Impact in the United States 315
Removing Perpetrators from Positions of Power 316
Impact on US Employer Disciplinary Practices 316
Impact on US College Campuses 317
Impact on US Legal Reforms 317
The #MeToo Campaign: Positive Impact around the World 318
Australia 318
South Korea 318
France, Sweden, and the UK 319
Theories: Spiral of Silence 319
A Platform for Women 320
Battling Long-Established Traditions 320
Theories: Muted Group Theory 321
Marginalized or Muted Groups 321
Case Study: China 322
Theories: Intimate Publicity, Epistemic Injustice, and Critical Race Feminism 322
Epistemic Injustice 323
Critical Race Feminism 324
Theories: Social Identity Theory 325
In-Groups vs. Out-Groups 325
Male vs. Female Perceptions of #MeToo 325
The #MeToo Campaign: Negative Impact 326
Egypt and China 326
The Danger of Passive Empathy 327
Notes 328
Chapter 11 Public Communication Campaigns for LGBTQ+ Communities 336
LGBTQ+: Key Terms and Definitions 337
Gender Expression and Gender Identity 337
Opposition and Homophobia 338
An Introduction to LGBTQ+ Campaigns 339
Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) and Institutional Actors 339
Signaling and Human Rights Language 340
Case Study 1: The GLAAD Campaigns 341
The “Be an Ally and a Friend” Campaign 342
The “Talking to the Middle” Campaign 343
GLAAD’s Campaign through Televised Productions 343
Applying Agenda-Setting Theory to GLAAD’s Campaigns 344
Implications for Campaigns 344
Making LGBTQ+ a Salient Issue 345
Queer Theory 346
Case Study 2: Campaign against Homophobia in Poland 346
Gay and Lesbian Organizations in Poland 346
Campaign against Homophobia 347
Challenging Ignorance 348
The Situation Today 349
Case Study 3: LGBTQ+ Campaigns in Brazil 349
The Situation Today 350
The Brazil without Homophobia Campaign 351
The Free & Equal Campaign 351
The Diversity in School Campaign 352
Notes 352
Chapter 12 Black Lives Matter Campaigns 360
Growth of a Movement 361
Roots in the Civil Rights Movement 361
George Floyd’s Death 362
Black Lives Matter UK 362
BLM Campaigns: An Introduction 363
Framing a New Visual Rhetoric 363
Symbolic Representation 364
Campaign against Police Brutality 364
Three Types of Victimhood 365
Campaign Zero 365
Campaign against Systemic Racism 368
Campaign against the Unfair Justice System 368
Combating the Four Domains of Power 369
Denouncing Respectability Politics 370
A Note on BLM’s Social Media Usage 370
Forming Coalitions with Like-Minded Activists 370
Slacktivism 371
Intersectionality: An Introduction 371
Rooted in Historical Marginalization 372
Embedded in Neo-Marxist and Feminist Scholarship 372
Allyship 373
Intersectionality and BLM 373
Case Study 1: Alicia Garza’s Herstory Campaign 374
Case Study 2: The BLMTO Campaign 375
Standpoint Theory, Critical Race Theory, and Critical Social Justice 375
Critical Race Theory 376
Disagreement with Critical Race Theory 377
Critical Social Justice 378
Notes 378
Part IV Terrorist, Extremist, And Anti–Terrorist Communication Campaigns 389
Chapter 13 Terrorist Communication Campaigns: Two Major Case Studies 391
Violent Extremism, Radicalization, and Indoctrination 392
Radicalization 392
Indoctrination 393
Terrorist Communications 393
Terrorist vs. Traditional Communication Campaigns 394
Terrorist Communications until and after the Twenty-First Century 394
Case Study 1: The FARC in Colombia 395
The FARC’s Ideology 396
The FARC’s Structure 396
The FARC’s Communications 397
Four Types of Audiences 397
La Voz de la Resistencia 398
Applying Speech Act Theory to the FARC’s Public Communication Campaigns 398
Locutionary, Illocutionary, and Perlocutionary Acts 399
The Bolivarian Populist Campaign 399
Using Human Rights Language 400
The FARC’s Propaganda 401
Institutional Theory and Organizational Legitimacy 402
The Deception of the Marquetalia Campaign 403
Case Study 2: The Rwanda Genocide 404
Why the Rwanda Genocide? 404
An Introduction to Radio Campaigns 405
Spreading Propaganda and Lies 405
Radio as “Truth-Teller” in Rwanda 406
Radio Machete 406
Kill-or-Be-Killed Frame 407
Valérie Bemeriki: Charismatic Broadcaster 408
Media System Dependency Theory 408
Euphemisms in the Radio Machete Campaign 409
Euphemisms: A Description 410
Euphemisms in Terrorism 410
Euphemisms in the Rwanda Genocide 411
Euphemisms for Killing 411
Euphemisms in Kinyarwanda 412
Euphemisms to Hurt Women 413
Notes 414
Chapter 14 Public Communication Campaigns of White Supremacism 426
A Violent Ideology 427
Statistics on Right-Wing Terrorism 427
Key Terms on White Supremacism 428
White Supremacist Campaigning through the Manosphere 429
The MGTOW Campaign 430
Global Participation 430
The Alt-Right 431
Leaderless Resistance 432
Case Study: “It’s Okay to Be White” 432
Social Media Platforms 433
Different Locations 433
White Male Victimization Narratives 434
The Proud Boys 435
The Proud Boys’ Ideology 435
The Proud Boys’ Campaign Tactics 436
Case Study: The “2020 Voter Fraud” Campaign 437
Opponents to the November 2020 Election Results 438
The 2021 US Capitol Riots 439
QAnon 440
Group Polarization and Groupthink 441
Notes 442
Chapter 15 Public Communication Campaigns of Islamophobia and Antisemitism 451
Islamophobia: An Introduction 452
Origins of the Word 452
Current Definitions 453
Satirical Cartoons 453
Case Study 1: Islamophobia in India 454
Hindutva or Hindu Nationalism 454
The Persistence of Islamophobia 455
Islamophobia during the COVID-19 Pandemic in India: General Information 456
Fears of Islamic Revivalism 456
From Unfounded Anxieties to Othering 457
Public Communication Campaign of Islamophobic Hashtags 457
#CoronaJihad 458
#TablighiJamatVirus 458
Disastrous Consequences 459
An Application of Terror Management Theory (TMT) 459
Cultural Survival through Prejudice 460
TMT and Islamophobia 460
Antisemitism: An Introduction 461
Antisemitic Ideology and Prejudice 461
Scapegoating and False Accusations 462
Holocaust Denial 463
Case Study 2: Antisemitism in Hungary 463
Past Perspectives 464
Contemporary Perspectives 464
The “Christian-National” Campaign in Hungary 465
A Reminiscence of Hungarian Complicity in the Holocaust 466
Hate Communication Campaigns 466
Intertextuality 467
The Protocols of the Elders of Zion 468
Notes 469
Chapter 16 Antiterrorist Public Communication Campaigns 476
Winning the War of Ideas 477
Counterradicalization Campaigns 477
Counterradicalization vs. Deradicalization 478
The “Soft Power” Approach 478
Moving to the Online Space 479
The Terrorists’ YouTube Effect 480
Strategies for Pushing Back 480
Case Study 1: Exit USA 481
Case Study 2: Exit Norway 483
Case Study 3: Building Community Resilience 484
Community Resilience 484
Building Community Resilience 485
Case Study 4: Average Mohamed 486
Targeting Muslim Youths 486
Emphasizing the Self, Not the Other 487
Case Study 5: Saudi Arabia’s Prevention Campaigns 488
Prevention, Rehabilitation, and After Care (PRAC) 489
The Sakinah Campaign 489
Case Study 6: Antiterrorism through Entertainment–Education (EE)
in the Middle East 490
Case Study 7: Say No to Terror 491
Rejecting Violence 492
Exposing Jihadism through Videos 492
Case Study 8: Reparation Campaigns in Australia 493
Aboriginal Australians Today 493
Racist Violence and Indirect Terrorism 493
Reparation Campaigns 494
Study by Donovan and Leivers 495
The Mixed Results of Antiterrorist Communication Campaigns 495
Notes 496
Glossary 505
Index 541
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