Diversity in U.S. Mass Media

Carolyn Ringer Lepre is Associate Professor at Marist College in New York who once worked as an Assistant Editor for Martha Stewart Living.

Naeemah Clark teaches Media Management and Operations at Elon University in North Carolina.

List of Figures xi

List of Tables xiii

List of Boxes xiv

Preface xv

1 Introduction 1

Social Identity 2

Racial/Ethnic Identity 3

Gender Identity 5

Sexual Identity 6

Age Identity 6

Disability Identity 7

Class Identity 7

Organization of the Book 8

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 9

References 9

2 Theoretical Foundations of Research in Mass Media Representations 11

Mass Media Representations: Social Psychological Perspectives 11

Framing 12

Social Comparison Theory 14

Socialization 16

Cultivation Theory 17

Media Representations: Critical Perspectives 19

Hegemony 20

The Concept of Representation 21

Feminist Theory 23

Three Waves of Feminism 23

Queer Theory 25

Concluding Remarks 25

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 25

References 26

3 Representations of American Indians 29

Historical Background to American Indian Representations 30

American Indians in Film 31

American Indians in Entertainment Television 37

Representations of American Indians in the News 41

American Indians and New Media 44

Concluding Remarks 46

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 47

References 47

4 Representations of African Americans 51

Historical Background to African American Representations 52

African Americans in Film 53

African Americans in Entertainment Television 57

African American Music 62

Representations of African Americans in the News 63

African Americans and Advertisements 68

African Americans in the Media Business 69

Concluding Remarks 70

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 71

References 71

5 Representations of Hispanics/Hispanic Americans 75

Historical Background to Hispanic/Hispanic American Representations 75

Hispanics/Hispanic Americans in Film 77

Hispanics/Hispanic Americans in Entertainment Television 80

Spanish-Language Programs in the United States 84

Hispanics/Hispanic Americans and Radio 86

Representations of Hispanics/Hispanic Americans in the News 88

Spanish-Language Newspapers in the United States 89

Spanish-Language Magazines in the United States 91

Hispanics/Hispanic Americans and Advertisements 92

Concluding Remarks 93

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 94

References 94

6 Representations of Arabs/Arab Americans 97

Historical Background to Arab/Arab American Representations 97

Arabs/Arab Americans in Film 99

Arabs/Arab Americans in Entertainment Television 105

Representations of Arabs/Arab Americans in the News 110

Concluding Remarks 114

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 115

References 116

7 Representations of Asians/Asian Americans 119

Historical Background to Asian/Asian American Representations 120

Asians/Asian Americans in Film 121

Asians/Asian Americans in Entertainment Television 128

Representations of Asians/Asian Americans in the News 133

Asian/Asian American Activism and New Media 136

Concluding Remarks 139

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 140

References 140

8 Representations of Mixed Race Individuals and Relationships 143

Historical Background to Representations of Race Mixing 144

Race Mixing in Film 146

Race Mixing in Entertainment Television 152

Representations of Mixed Race Individuals and Relationships in the News 159

Mixed Race Individuals/Couples and New Media 160

Concluding Remarks 162

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 163

References 163

9 Representations of Gender in Television, Film, and Music Videos 165

Historical Background to Gender Representations in Film and Television 166

Gender in Film 168

Gender in Entertainment Television 175

Gender in Music Videos 185

Concluding Remarks 192

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 193

References 194

10 Representations of Gender in Magazines, Newspapers, and Advertising 197

Historical Background to Women in Magazines 198

Gender in Magazines 200

Gender in Newspapers 204

Gender in Advertising 209

Gender Trends and the “Male Gaze” 212

Gender in New Media 215

Concluding Remarks 215

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 216

References 216

11 Representations of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender People in the Media 221

Historical Background to LGBT Representations 222

LGBT in Film 224

LGBT in Entertainment Television 229

LGBT in Music and Radio 235

Representations of LGBT in the News 237

LGBT and Magazines 238

LGBT and Advertisements 240

LGBT and New Media 242

Concluding Remarks 242

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 243

References 243

12 Representations of Age 247

Historical Background to Ageist Stereotypes and the Myths of Aging 248

Senior Citizens and Teenagers in the United States 249

Age in Film 250

Representations of Older and Elderly People 250

Representations of Teenagers 252

Age in Entertainment Television 257

Representations of Older and Elderly People 257

Representations of Teenagers 260

Age in the News 263

Representations of Older and Elderly People 263

Representations of Teenagers 263

Age and New Media 265

Concluding Remarks 266

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 267

References 267

13 Representations of People with Disabilities 271

Historical Background to Representations of People with Disabilities 272

People with Disabilities in Film 274

People with Disabilities in Entertainment Television 277

People with Disabilities in the News 282

People with Disabilities in Advertising 285

Concluding Remarks 288

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 288

References 289

14 Representations of Class 293

Historical Background to Class Representations 293

Class in Film 296

Class in Entertainment Television 301

Representations of Class in the News 305

Concluding Remarks 308

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 309

References 309

15 Representations of Religion and Faith in the Media 313

Historical Background to Religion and Faith Representations 314

Religion and Faith in Film 315

Martyrdom in Film 318

Films about Those Struggling with Faith 319

Films as Windows into Faith Traditions 320

Representations of Religion and Faith on Television 321

Entertainment Television 321

Televangelism 324

Representations of Religion and Faith in the News 325

Denominational Magazines 328

Concluding Remarks 329

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 330

References 330

16 Mass Media Industries Addressing Diversity 333

Broadcast News and Newspaper Industries and Diversity 333

The Magazine Industry and Diversity 336

The Entertainment Industry and Diversity 337

The Mass Media Industry and Diversity Statements/Initiatives 341

Interviews with Mass Media Professionals 345

Brent Merrill 345

Rebecca Traister 346

Kent Takano 347

Aminda Marques Gonzalez 349

Richard Prince 352

Huma Razvi 353

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 354

References 355

17 Conclusion 357

Common Threads in Mass Media Representations 357

Psychological Impact of Mass Media Representations 359

Minority Media as Counteracting Agents 359

Reflection Questions and Thoughts to Consider 362

References 363

Digging Deeper 365

One Representation Replaces Another 365

Suggestions for Further Exploration 365

Sexuality and Power 365

Suggestions for Further Exploration 366

Rules and Regulations Impact Representations 366

Suggestions for Further Exploration 366

The Symbolic Annihilation of a Social Group 366

Suggestions for Further Exploration 367

Minorities as the “Other” 367

Suggestions for Further Exploration 367

Reliance of the News on White “Expert” Sources 368

Suggestions for Further Exploration 368

“False” Framing and Misrepresentation 368

Suggestions for Further Exploration 368

Online = New Opportunities 368

Suggestions for Further Exploration 369

Changes, Contradictions, and an Ever-Moving Continuum 369

Suggestions for Further Exploration 369

Reference 369

Glossary of Key Terms/Concepts 371

Index 379